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kant took up the task of developing a systematic metaphysics at a time when the smart money was that it was a waste of time science had progressed to the point
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mathematics had progressed to the point where the world of thought the enlightenment world knew what it was doing and the metaphysicians actually should just trouble themselves
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so the state of metaphysics was something of a wreckage and many of the wiser heads thought that it could be safely regarded entirely and so i usually like to begin these
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lectures with constant systems that even as you set out to ignore metaphysics you're probably engaged in some form of manifest physical speculation yourself he says that the human mind will ever
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give up metaphysical research is as little to be expected as that we should prefer to give up breathing all together to avoid inhaling impure air there will therefore always be
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metaphysics in the world nay everyone especially every man of reflection will have it and for want of a recognized standard will shape it for himself after his own
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pattern so you're going to do this whether you like it or not and one of the objectives of the critique is to have us do it the right way the results as you very well know
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are mixed not only mixed but many regard the project as a dead letter jonathan bennett in the philosophical review some years ago wrote this most of the
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critique of pure reason is prima facie dead because prima facie are dependent on wholly indefensible theories so the commentator's dominant problem is
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to display the life below the surface now i think that this autopsy report was surely premature because in the 40 years since since bennett reached that conclusion
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don't ask how many hundreds and even thousands of dissertations journal articles books treatises presentations from lecterns have been addressed to this
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alleged corpse it's a case of mistaken identity i should think i think the dead body better than it found was a body that he had
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misidentified but can't face this in his own time after the first edition which came out in 1781 it was obvious in no time that both friends and critics
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systematically misunderstood what he was trying to convey kant reacted to criticism with his characteristic intemperate
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frustrated impatience he refers to quote incompetent judges who while they would have an old name for every deviation from their perverse though common opinion
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and never judge of the spirit of philosophical nomenclature but cling to the letter only are ready to put their own conceits in the place of well-defined notions and therefore deform
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and distort them but his critics did have a leg to stand on and if you've been wading through the first critique you'll be sympathetic with the frustration of critics who are often not clear as to just what
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not only what kant means but what the purpose of the entire project is what is the project of first critique what's he trying to do it's not enough rather aerially to say
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put metaphysics on a scientific foundation because we've yet to define metaphysics or come to some agreement as to what kant would mean by scientific let alone putting something on a foundation
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sebastian gardner says this this is all by way of encouraging you to approach the book with great optimism and cheerfulness sebastian gartner says virtually every sentence of the critique
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presents difficulties attempts have been made to provide commentaries comprehensively illuminating uh comprehensively illuminating each individual section of the work
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and some of these run to several volumes without getting near its end and then one commentator com noting what it's like to read the critique of pure reason says it is quote
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a disagreeable task because the work is dry obscure opposed to all ordinary notions and long-winded as well who said that
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kant in the prolegal task dry obscure opposed to all ordinary notions and long-winded as well so you should be
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very enthusiastic now about taking up the first critique based on these judgments kant got to this uh uh
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during his pre-critical years he was a highly published scholar his interests were wide-ranging they included issues in law and in science and particularly astronomy
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uh he's he is a scholar of consequence and he would have been a notable scholar had he never taken up this project at all he gets to it through a rather winding
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path uh a lot of it is hit and miss you can tell from the correspondence he has with friends and admirers that he's heading toward the critique of pure reason but he's not quite sure
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what the model should be and and the best way to get there he's he's living in a divided world he's living in a world of newton and leibniz a world of british
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empiricism focused on observation and measurement and a world of traditional rationalist approaches to difficult problems where if you're the right person sitting in the right armchair
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you should be able to deduce the facts of the world and kant is trying to be at home and even reconcile those two worlds the first sign of of real progress comes
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10 years before the first edition of the first critique he's writing a letter to marcus hertz a former student a doctor an interesting fellow in his own right
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uh marcus hertz i think was the first medical school faculty member to admit and teach jewish students uh at a prussian university and
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hertz himself did a fair amount of writing and he was a very loyal faithful correspondent of kantz uh deeply interested in kant as a person and in his work and kant
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kant was rather self-disclosing in his letters to hurts he says to hertz that he's well he's he's on to it now at 1771. he's working on something he's tentatively titled
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on the limits of sensibility and reason so we can see that this is uh forecasting what the major work will be he describes himself in his approach to
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these subjects as suffering from a mania for systematizing you may have noticed those clinical signs if you've been thumbing through the critique of juries
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a veritable mania or system if the thing were outlined to any more molecular level it would be a book of outlines do you see and in the german it's much
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more outlined he expresses an urgency in his letters to hertz he sees time running out he's still not quite sure how to get to
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this well what is the question the question is how far our knowledge can reach the extent to which we can rely on our senses and the extent to which we can
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rely on reason he recognizes that the ultimate arbiter in matters of this kind has always been human rationality but no one has taken the time to test the measuring instrument
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that is if the gold standard for whether an argument succeeds or not is rationality itself one has to assess the instrument how good a thermometer is it
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what does its nature bring to the table as it sets about to make judgments about its own productions and kant i think is quite original in that regard he understands that the
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senses and reason are both limited but limited how now um what was the project if someone were to ask you as one day you will be asked if you're doing
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philosophy here one of those easy questions what was kant's project in the first critique you have three hours what what what will you say
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that the project is uh carl americs who is a distinguished kant scholar sees contemporary count scholarship as giving us
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three alternatives uh americ's ads as a fourth first to develop a systematic metaphysic serving as a refutation of skepticism so the gray eminence here of
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course is hume who awakened khan from his dogmatic slumber and one certainly can read the first critique as a sustained defense of our epistemic resources
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against hume type skepticism which is the most developed form of what might be called the empiricist path to skepticism now what what is it about empiricism that
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that culminates in in skepticism in in some form of skepticism on the traditional empiricist account we do not have direct access to the facts of the external world
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that is we do not experience externality directly but only immediately not immediately but immediately because between us and the external world are those what do you call them oh yes
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sense organs and so the question is how faithfully they report what is going on out there well to raise the question how faithful is the sensory report
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of the external world is to assume that you have some reliable non-sensory way of answering that question that's the box you can't get out of and so there is always this gap
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between reality as it might possibly be known by some non-human creature and reality as empirically sampled by the senses whose limitations and distortions are very well
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known but not perfectly classified or categorized or or measured so there is that problem you do the best you can how good are the senses well
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we got to the moon and came back so they're obviously reporting something reasonably well but if you're serious about epistemology then you have reservations about all knowledge grounded in sense
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experience so there's that problem call it uh the lock problem or call it whatever problem you like it it's it's one of the consequences certainly of a radical
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empiricism and there are gambits that can be invoked so apart from continent ones you could adopt a form of realism a thomas reed type
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realism according to which the alleged gap is not a gap at all in fact you see what is there your knowledge of the external world is immediate not mediated and i shall have
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a few things to say about that maybe today and surely in the course of these lectures well you might also say that the project of the first critique is to develop a
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metaphysical system that will provide the right kind of foundation for science and i i i lean in the direction of can't attempting to develop an argument that will ground the
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objectivity of science that is to say is not trying to redeem the wisdom of the plain man he recognizes the errors that ordinary
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thought is pro would be prone to but he also recognizes the profound success of the newtonian project the 17th century project the age of newton
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and galileo and company and this surely can't be based on iffy and and and epistemically chancy hume type uh
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uh vulnerabilities so what metaphysical foundation at once respects the achievements of science and provides a grounding so that science itself
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understands the basis upon which its claims ultimately depend one might argue that that is the project of the first critique
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america gives us a third option which is the enduring problem he calls it the enduring problem of ontology now what is ontology well you all know what ontology is your
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philosophy students willard van orman kwine says the nice thing about ontology is that it can be defined exhaustively by three monosyllabic english words
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what is there well what is there now locke surely one of the fathers of modern modern day british empiricism
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was it pains to argue that the endless metaphysical disputes about the real essence of things were idle to begin with because we lack the capacity to know the real essence of
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anything all we have is what lock referred to as the nominal essence of things it's the way we in virtue of the way we perceive and and and cogitate
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it's the way we come to label things people and carpets and light bulbs and computers we give things names based on general characteristics and it's
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largely the the shared experiences of a community that settles on the meaning of a term as for the real essence of things that's beyond the reach beyond beyond the reach of our our very
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senses now how does lock come to a conclusion like that well he is an older friend of that very clever young fellow ah
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isaac what's his name and according to newton our ultimate reality is corpuscular that is to say the ultimate material basis
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of everything is beyond our visual capabilities so the real essence of you know this how luck spins out the particular theory of the mind that he advances
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in an essay concerning the human understanding uh what are ideas ideas are something fabricated out of elementary sensations well how does that work well elementary
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sensations are very much like the corpuscular elements of uh mind do you see now by a process of association these elementary sensations are pulled together
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to form elementary ideas and what is that process of association like it's like gravitational forces that pull together corpuscles to form more complex bodies so lock is
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already giving us something of a newtonian theory of mind and on that account of course we can't know the real essence of things no no even a bug can't know the real essence of things
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the real essence of things is something very small but that's not the level at which we examine things we examine things at this level and at this level we give things names
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based on what based on the use we make of them and the traffic that we have with them in actual life well this then does create something of an ontological problem the problem is all right we've got these
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nominal essences these things we've given names to but what really is there and in case you're hearing something of a bat squeak of kantian numena uh sneaking in at this
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point you're you're hearing active you're hearing aptly that there is an aspect of reality which is inferible but not knowable and the kandy and
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numena are not entirely removed from the lockheed real essences oh i can almost hear khan scholars screaming in protest
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they they usually take something for that now carl amorox uh argues that kant was aware of all three of these uh issues but he finally settled on a
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modest fourth option which amrex refers to as the transcendental option that would unearth and delineate the conditions necessary for both the scientific
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and the manifest images of the world the transcendental option i will get to kant and his neologistic use of transcendental
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a little a little later well kant says this is at b10 when one's reason has learned completely to understand its own power in respect of objects which can be
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presented to it in experience it should easily be able to determine with completeness and certainty the extent and the limits of its attempted employment beyond the bounds of experience once reason sees what it is
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doing with the input if i can use that horrid language it's because that thing was so difficult to turn off today i'm going to start talking about inputs i'm sure i am andy stop me before
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i sin again yes all right once once reason has a way of reckoning what it does with the contents of experience how it works on the contents of
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experience half the model is taken care of already and this is why we need a critique a critical assessment of how reason operates what its limits
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what its limits are counter race is a very interesting question which i think is probably the best way into the first critique he raises a question in the prolagomena
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the question is how is nature possible how is nature possible think about this he defines nature as the existence of things
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so far as it is determined according to universal laws now what is he getting at with this look here we sit well
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you sit i stand here we stand and sit in a veritable hurricane of stimulation showers of quanta
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sounds which if you were very attentive you would begin to hear listen see things you're touching surfaces
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that you think are hard though they're not well they're hard but they're not what you think you've got this tremendous bath
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of stimulation disconnected how bad is it well the olfactory epithelial cells of the canine will respond to the
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dissipation of one molecule of fatty acid do you see this is why argos detects odysseus that the minute he gets within smelling range
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say there's odysseus pretending to be me and there's argos who spots him after all these years and dies i mean the the very fact of odysseus's
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survival shocks himself so argos picks up the smell your dog will pick you up maybe a third of a mile away
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without wind do you see the best studies of energy at the threshold of human vision indicate that if we can successfully get two or three quanta to a retinal cone it will excite
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a visual response you generally have to bang the cornea with about 150 of them because half of what arrives at the cornea is reflected back and then there's more reflection off the
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anterior surface of the lens etc etc but if you can get a few to the retina you'll excite a visual response audition is sensitive at the level of brownian motion
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if you haven't done any physics may i say to you that is a very low volume since most of you have blown out your auditory mechanism with what you refer to as music
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you don't have to worry about hearing anything at the level of brownian motion you'll be lucky if you hear a street car coming bearing down on you but the auditory system
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is you see the problem don't you you've got all that going on and hitting a system that's responsive to just about everything how out of that
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morass do you get tables and chairs and people and symphonies and rules of law and trees and agricultural principles and shipping vessels etc how do you get
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the law governed world of science given that that rash that epidemic of sensory experiences what makes that possible
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and can't satisfy that empiricism doesn't even have a way of addressing the question let alone settling it the human being as a passive recipient
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to these tidal waves of stimulation would in the words of sir thomas brown that's a wonderful passage in religio medici where thomas brown refers to one as staring
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about with a gross rusticity well we'd go through life staring about with a gross rusticity what was that oh god what was that oh what was that
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you see as opposed to the lunar excursion model and coming back to earth orbiting the moon etc
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how is all that possible and kant is going to argue that all that is possible because of what we bring to this otherwise tidal wave of stimulations
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the order that we impose on it that the knowledge we have in fact is a reflection of the very rational and perceptual principles that operate as we confront the world
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now you say to yourself well for goodness sake what's new in that here's what's new in that anyone taking the that part of the empiricist story according to which our knowledge of the external world is never
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immediate but immediate recognizes that we are imposing some kind of effect on whatever it is that gets to us that's old hat nemo to scans it bis in idem pluming
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no one ever steps into the same river twice everything's in flux do you see the trick that kant has to pull off is how to save in light of all that how to save
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what i prefer to think of as the scientific image from rank subjectivity that's the burdensome part of the task to acknowledge
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what we are doing by way of constructing a lawful reality and at the same time saving the resulting image from as i say
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rank subjectivity now he wants to save philosophy from something else next week i shall go into a little more detail on this a number of scholars have wondered why
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kant is so harsh in the prolegomena in his treatment of the scottish common sense school the school of reed oswald deity and others
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and i think mad fred keane has has the right answer to that uh kant is part of a war within german philosophy it has whiskers it was
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there before kant was even a student and and the war is between those who would make philosophy a systematic scientific in that sense of systematic subject and those who would attempt to
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reconcile our philosophy to the ordinary understandings of the ordinary person indeed reconcile philosophy to the claims of religion
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in such a way as to appeal to persons of ordinary perception and judgment this gives rise really to two rather distinct schools of philosophy within the german
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intellectual world the philosophy which is the academic philosophy that kant will defend all of his life and the popular philosophy
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which is as the term suggests something much more accessible to ordinary sensibilities can't i think pegged the scottish common sense school
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as so close to the popular philosophy as to put some distance between it and himself this is the only explanation for the uh rather trivializing reference to
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reed oswalt uh and beatty because there's much in that is redolent of reading common sense philosophy so a few words about
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read if thomas reed were alive and thriving well he wouldn't be thriving today because he was 54 years old before his first book came out which means
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he would have been let go about 25 years before he had any occasion to write anything he wasn't a plotter he he was careful thoughtful probably
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the scientifically most prepared mind of the period he knew the math he knew the he was an expert in geometry he was an expert in well i could go on about about reading
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we we've rediscovered reid long forgotten i think the first uh paper that i published on read was 1978 and good scholars would look you in the
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eye and say thomas who well that's no longer the case reid's inquiry into the human mind is a book you can take to the beach you will enjoy it it's well written
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it's humorous in places reed's concern is that philosophical skepticism will create a wreckage out of philosophy itself
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he's particularly concerned with the influence that hume's philosophy is likely to have not because it startles but because it makes virtually no contact
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with the successful dimensions of life that is to say everything about which hume raises a skeptical challenge is something that must be taken for granted in all of the ordinary affairs of life
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and reid works hume against himself in this regard if you if if you read human causality in in the treatise and mind you if hume awakened kant it wasn't the treatise
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because although the treatise comes before the inquiry the treatise was not available to cut can't read hume's inquiry but not the treatise which i think is one of the reasons why he never got caught up in the personal
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identity issue which is so fully explored in the treatise not so much at all really in the inquiry but what is what is hume arguing for regarding causality
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hume gives us the you know this uh i see before me uh on a billiard table uh two balls one moves it hits the other the other moves quote i must own i s i cannot see some third
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term betwixt them ball one moves hits ball two ball two moves what is it that hume can't see between those events he can't see a
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cause he can't see a cause so where is causality causality isn't on the billiard table causality is a habit of the mind
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fabricated out of repeated experiences thus whenever two events are constantly conjoined in experience it becomes habitual for us to assume that one
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causally brings about the other and since this is an habitual feature of our own mental machinery which after all could be other than what it is hume
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reaches the rather startling conclusion quote that anything may be the cause of anything that is you could reconstitute sentient life in such a way that the
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causal connections would be understood in radically different ways this just happens to be the way we do it and then hume assures us that of course when he leaves the privacy of his study
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and goes out into the light of day he thinks the way ordinary people think that this is a philosophical insight on his part reed has a bit of fun with that
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he says so you see then mr hume's philosophy is very much like a hobby horse which a man when he is ill can keep home with him and ride to his contentment
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but just in case he should bring it into the marketplace his friends would quickly empanel a jury and confiscate his estates and have the solicitude
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never to leave him alone now what reed wants to make clear is that there are certain first principles on which all thought depends
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these are principles of common sense he says which we are under an obligation to take for granted in all of the ordinary affairs of life quote even the lowly caterpillar will crawl
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across a thousand leaves until it finds the one that's right for its diet it does not do this by way of metaphysical speculation
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in fact 99 times in 100 the most decisive moves we make the initiatives we take are non-deliberative you will not be deliberating the movements associated
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with riding a bike getting a fork full of something into your mouth picking up the phone it's not just the picking up of the
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phone it's understanding that whatever laws were operating that gave the telephone weight yesterday are still operating do you see that the laws well we didn't know about internal combustion engines
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but if you you go out in the morning and the car doesn't start your first thought is not my goodness they've suspended the laws of the internal combustion no your first assumption is there's
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something wrong with the car and that assumption it's not something that you sort of grudgingly reach on the basis of it it is a necessary part of functioning you you might see this as almost a kind
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of pre-darwinian insight into what it is creatures of a given time and a given nature must take for granted to get across the street
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now what reid wants to argue is that a philosophy that officially opposes this that holds up before a rational being the spectacle of its most basic conceptions being fatally
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philosophically thought is a philosophy that's going to have a very very brief shelf life people will look at it and they'll smile at the cleverness of the person who advanced it and then they will get on with the
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business of life but reading principles of common sense have a kind of cousinship with some of the apparatus that you will see
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can't developing under the pure categories of the understanding and under the core principles of perception so that's a rather long-winded way of saying that there are
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some reading anticipations of kant and then the question is since kant didn't read english did he read read and i do want to say that account by the
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way took some pride in the fact that his ancestry was scottish that the name kant itself is a corruption of a scottish name and we know how avidly
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he pursued the productions of the scottish school because these in redacted form were being made available in german translations very very quickly uh scottish philosophical thought
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was not remote from the german-speaking world um a number of years many years ago oh my gosh one of my students was going to
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do a phd in berlin and as we always hope our students will say professor is there anything i can do for you while i'm
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in germany you've done so much for me you see write that down i said which i rarely do
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yes see if you can find a german translation of reid's inquiry that might have been available before kant wrote the first edition of the
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first critique and damn it if there wasn't one it's the worst thing it was anonymously published wisely by the translator it's a horrible translation i
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and and although the timing would have been all right i i have no reason to believe kant ever got hold of this cut common sense is rendered as deminer mentioned vegeta you know like a
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common criminal and maybe khan did reapers because he investigating reed oswalt and beatty as if as if what they came up with would serve
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as a criticism of hume's sophisticated philosophy he says what does the common sense school do other than consult quote the wisdom of the herd
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but you see the common sense school is not cons is not consulting the wisdom of the herd it's not what everyone stands up and applauds it's not what everyone claims for himself it's what every one of us is under an
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obligation to take for granted you can't prove the law of contradiction for example because all proof presupposes the validity of the law you get that right well this is exactly
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what reid is going to do with principles of common sense every mode of verification that you would seek to employ in an attempt to vindicate these principles presupposes their validity and this gets
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very close to a kantian transcendental argument the necessary condition for something else to be the case there's one more uh feature of the
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critique that that that i want to bring to your attention before going into the details of what he means by a transcendental argument
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can't very often takes recourse to legal metaphors he speaks of the fair-minded judge he speaks of the kind of evidence that would prevail upon the
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judgment of a good jury he wants his arguments to be understood not as arguments in formal logic but arguments in a transcendental logic by which he
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means an evidentiary form of argument given the fact what get given this is the case what are the necessary conditions absent which this couldn't possibly be
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the case now we do know that kant early on i mentioned to you at the beginning of lecture that his interests reached law and politics and so forth kant was quite interested
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in in legal cases involving boundary disputes and at law these are often referred to the the papers that would be filed in behalf of a boundary dispute
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would be re referred to as deduction deduction schriften and to some extent kant's own argument is a species of deduction schriften where you show
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the the pedigree of property claims the pedigree of cognitive claims how far back you can date them what what conditions they
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satisfy what is made possible by the fact that they are in place and i think you would be well served reading the first critique as if it was something of a brief a
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something of a legal brief and in places something of a brief coupled with an oral and oral argument well is he just another dead
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prussian philosopher um this is what we find in a contemporary journal a leading journal in in physics quote
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in physics it became quite clear in the last 30 years how the cognition of objects can be carried through surprisingly the strategy which is applied in physics for the cognition of
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objects follows essentially the conceptual program formulated by kant even if the majority of physicists is not aware of this point so i say
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this is not not only did in my judgment jonathan bennett misidentify the body not only is the body not dead but in some fields the body is is very much very much alive
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um what shall we say then about about the overall aim well i'm going to give you a puff now i mean this is almost uh can't should split the royalties with
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me but i i do want to say this much first contrary to a rumor that got started here four or five years ago i am not a kantian uh um
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i died in 322 bc with my friend aristotle and i think the whole damn thing's been downhill ever since but um but could there possibly be
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a more consequential philosophical project a project that respects the perceptual and cognitive resources that we bring to bear
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on every knowledge claim we make and at the same time does not lapse into a kind of psychology [Music]
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a metaphysical analysis that i say respects the stamp of human cognition on all of its works but does not lapse into subjectivity
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a metaphysical project that would inform the sciences of just what it is that makes some of their undertakings necessarily successful in virtue of the
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manner in which we do cognize reality now i'm going to leave you with a bee in the garden so that you understand that it is possible
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to maintain objectivity while respecting the perceptual uniqueness of the precipient when i go into our garden at home in the right season i admire
00:45:21
yellow roses we have yellow roses in the garden and they bloom beautifully i don't do this alone because there's invariably a honeybee admiring or doing something with the
00:45:34
same rose as it happens the peak spectral sensitivity of the normal human visual system is
00:45:46
at 5500 angstroms 550 milli microns you will call that yellow the peak sensitivity in the visual system of the honeybee
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is in the ultraviolet so the honeybee doesn't see anything yellow and i don't see anything ultraviolet are we both victims of some sort of hallucination
00:46:15
no and once we start wading through khan's arguments we will see the manner in which the unique perceptual and cognitive principles we bring to bear on the situation
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can preserve the objectivity of the knowledge we claim about that situation even while granting that what we are bringing to bear is distinctly
00:46:40
human capital well then i shall see you in a week
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